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The Rules in Hacker and Sommers’s Rules for Writers (7th Ed.)

8a. Use the active voice unless you have a good reason for choosing the passive.

8b. Replace be verbs that result in dull or wordy sentences.

8c. As a rule, choose a subject that names the person or thing doing the action.

9a. Balance parallel ideas in a series.

9b. Balance parallel ideas presented as pairs.

9c. Repeat function words to clarify parallels.

10a. Add words needed to complete compound structures.

10b. Add the word that if there is any danger of misreading without it.

10c. Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.

10d. Add the articles a, an, and the where necessary for grammatical completeness.

11a. Untangle the grammatical structure.

11b. Straighten out the logical connections.

11c. Avoid is when, is where, and reason…is because constructions.

12a. Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify.

12b. Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.

12c. Move awkwardly placed modifiers.

12d. Avoid split infinitives when they are awkward.

12e. Repair dangling modifiers.

13a. Make the point of view consistent in person and number.

13b. Maintain consistent verb tenses.

13c. Make verbs consistent in mood and voice.

13d. Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations.

14a. Coordinate equal ideas; subordinate minor ideas.

14b. Combine choppy sentences.

14c. Avoid ineffective or excessive coordination.

14d. Do not subordinate major ideas.

14e. Do not subordinate excessively.

14f. Experiment with techniques for gaining special emphasis.

15a. Vary your sentence openings.

15b. Use a variety of sentence structures.

15c. Try inverting sentences occasionally.

16a. Eliminate redundancies.

16b. Avoid unnecessary repetition of words.

16c. Cut empty or inflated phrases.

16d. Simplify the structure.

16e. Reduce clauses to phrases, phrases to single words.

17a. Stay away from jargon.

17b. Avoid pretentious language, most euphemisms, and “doublespeak.”

17c. In most contexts, avoid slang, regional expressions, and nonstandard English.

17d. Choose an appropriate level of formality.

17e. Avoid sexist language.

17f. Revise language that may offend groups of people.

18a. Select words with appropriate connotations.

18b. Prefer specific, concrete nouns.

18c. Do not misuse words.

18d. Use standard idioms.

18e. Do not rely heavily on clichés.

18f. Use figures of speech with care.

19a. Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences.

19b. Attach fragmented phrases or turn them into sentences.

19c. Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences.

19d. Exception: A fragment may be used for effect.

20a. Consider separating the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

20b. Consider separating the clauses with a semicolon (or, if appropriate, with a colon or a dash).

20c. Consider making the clauses into separate sentences.

20d. Consider restructuring the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.

21a. Consult this section for standard subject-verb combinations.

21b. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a word that comes between.

21c. Treat most subjects joined with and as plural.

21d. With subjects joined with or or nor (or with either…or or neither…nor), make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.

21e. Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.

21f. Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.

21g. Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb.

21h. Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement.

21i . Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.

21j. Words such as athletics, economics, mathematics, physics, politics, statistics, measles, and news are usually singular, despite their plural form.

21k. Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, and gerund phrases are singular.

22a. Do not use plural pronouns to refer to singular antecedents.

22b. Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.

22c. Treat most compound antecedents joined with and as plural.

22d. With compound antecedents joined with or or nor (or with either…or or neither…nor), make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent.

23a. Avoid ambiguous or remote pronoun reference.

23b. Generally, avoid broad reference of this, that, which, and it.

23c. Do not use a pronoun to refer to an implied antecedent.

23d. Avoid the indefinite use of they, it, and you.

23e. To refer to persons, use who, whom, or whose, not which or that.

24a. Use the subjective case (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) for subjects and subject complements.

24b. Use the objective case (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) for all objects.

24c. Put an appositive and the word to which it refers in the same case.

24d. Following than or as, choose the pronoun that expresses your meaning.

24e. For we or us before a noun, choose the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were omitted.

24f. Use the objective case for subjects and objects of infinitives.

24g. Use the possessive case to modify a gerund.

25a. In subordinate clauses, use who and whoever for subjects and subject complements, whom and whomever for all objects.

25b. In questions, use who and whoever for subjects, whom and whomever for all objects.

25c. Use whom for subjects or objects of infinitives.

26a. Use adjectives to modify nouns.

26b. Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

26c .Distinguish between good and well, bad and badly.

26d. Use comparatives and superlatives with care.

26e. Avoid double negatives.

27a. Choose standard English forms of irregular verbs.

27b. Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay.

27c. Use -s (or -es) endings on present-tense verbs that have third-person singular subjects.

27d. Do not omit -ed endings on verbs.

27e. Do not omit needed verbs.

27f. Choose the appropriate verb tense.

27g. Use the subjunctive mood in the few contexts that require it.

28a. Use the appropriate verb form and tense.

28b. To write a verb in the passive voice, use a form of be with the past participle.

28c. Use the base form of the verb after a modal.

28d. To make negative verb forms, add not in the appropriate place.

28e. In a conditional sentence, choose verb tenses according to the type of condition expressed in the sentence.

28f. Become familiar with verbs that may be followed by gerunds or infinitives.

29a. Be familiar with articles and other noun markers.

29b. Use the with most specific common nouns.

29c. Use a (or an) with common singular count nouns that refer to “one” or “any.”

29d. Use a quantifier such as some or more, not a or an, with a noncount noun to express an approximate amount.

29e. Do not use articles with nouns that refer to all of something or something in general.

29f. Do not use articles with most singular proper nouns. Use the with most plural proper nouns.

30a. Use a linking verb between a subject and its complement.

30b. Include a subject in every sentence.

30c. Do not use both a noun and a pronoun to perform the same grammatical function in a sentence.

30d. Do not repeat an object or an adverb in an adjective clause.

30e. Avoid mixed constructions beginning with although or because.

30f. Do not place an adverb between a verb and its direct object.

30g. Distinguish between present participles and past participles used as adjectives.

30h. Place cumulative adjectives in an appropriate order.

31a. Become familiar with prepositions that show time and place.

31b. Use nouns (including -ing forms) after prepositions.

31c. Become familiar with common adjective + preposition combinations.

31d. Become familiar with common verb + preposition combinations.

32a. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses.

32b. Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.

32c. Use a comma between all items in a series.

32d. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives.

32e. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements. Do not use commas to set off restrictive (essential) elements.

32f. Use commas to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and word groups expressing contrast.

32g. Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, the words yes and no, interrogative tags, and mild interjections.

32h. Use commas with expressions such as he said to set off direct quotations.

32i. Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers.

32j. Use a comma to prevent confusion.

33a. Do not use a comma between compound elements that are not independent clauses.

33b. Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its subject or object.

33c. Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.

33d. Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives, between an adjective and a noun, or between an adverb and an adjective.

33e. Do not use commas to set off restrictive or mildly parenthetical elements.

33f. Do not use a comma to set off a concluding adverb clause that is essential to the meaning of the sentence.

33g. Do not use a comma after a phrase that begins an inverted sentence.

33h. Avoid other common misuses of the comma.

34a. Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction.

34b. Use a semicolon between independent clauses linked with a transitional expression.

34c. Use a semicolon between items in a series containing internal punctuation.

34d. Avoid common misuses of the semicolon.

35a. Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive, a quotation, or a summary or an explanation.

35b. Use a colon according to convention.

35c. Avoid common misuses of the colon.

36a. Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.

36b. Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate that an indefinite pronoun is possessive.

36c. Use an apostrophe to mark omissions in contractions and numbers.

36d. Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of numbers, letters, abbreviations, and words mentioned as words.

36e. Avoid common misuses of the apostrophe.

37a. Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.

37b. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

37c. Use quotation marks around the titles of short works.

37d. Quotation marks may be used to set off words used as words.

37e. Use punctuation with quotation marks according to convention.

37f. Avoid common misuses of quotation marks.

38a. The period

38b. The question mark

38c. The exclamation point

39a. The dash

39b. Parentheses

39c. Brackets

39d. The ellipsis mark

39e. The slash

40a. Use standard abbreviations for titles immediately before and after proper names.

40b. Use abbreviations only when you are sure your readers will understand them.

40c. Use BC, AD, a.m., p.m., No., and $ only with specific dates, times, numbers, and amounts.

40d. Be sparing in your use of Latin abbreviations.

40e. Avoid inappropriate abbreviations.

41a. Follow the conventions in your discipline for spelling out or using numerals to express numbers.

41b. Use numerals according to convention in dates, addresses, and so on.

42a. Italicize the titles of works according to convention.

42b. Italicize the names of specific ships, spacecraft, and aircraft.

42c. Italicize foreign words used in an English sentence.

42d. Italicize words mentioned as words, letters mentioned as letters, and numbers mentioned as numbers.

43a. Become familiar with the major spelling rules.

43b. Become familiar with your dictionary.

43c. Discriminate between words that sound alike but have different meanings.

43d. Be alert to commonly misspelled words.

44a. Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word.

44b. Hyphenate two or more words used together as an adjective before a noun.

44c. Hyphenate fractions and certain numbers when they are spelled out.

44d. Use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning “former”), and self- and with the suffix -elect.

44e. Use a hyphen in certain words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters.

44f. Check for correct word breaks when words must be divided at the end of a line.

45a. Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them; do not capitalize common nouns.

45b. Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone.

45c. Capitalize the first, last, and all major words in titles and subtitles of works such as books, articles, songs, and online documents.

45d. Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

45e. Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence but not a quoted phrase.

45f. Capitalize the first word after a colon if it begins an independent clause.

45g. Capitalize abbreviations according to convention.

62a. Cite quotations and borrowed ideas.

62b. Enclose borrowed language in quotation marks.

62c. Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

63a. Use quotations appropriately.

63b. Use signal phrases to integrate sources.

63c. Synthesize sources.

64a. APA in-text citations

64b. APA list of references

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